2 John Last, 'New Pathways in an Age of Ecological and Ethical Concerns', International Journal of Epidemiology, 1994, 23, pages 1-4.

3 'A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians' , Health and Welfare Canada, 1974.

4 NHMRC, The Health Effects of Passive Smoking, The Draft Report of the NHMRC Working Party, Canberra, 1995. Hereafter cited as the Report

5 'Risk Ratio' (or Relative Risk) measures the prevalence of exposure to a risk among a group of people who have a particular disease- referred to as the cases- and a group of people who do not have the disease- referred to as the controls. Risk Ratio is a statistical representation of the risk arrived at by dividing the prevalence of exposure among the cases by the prevalence of exposure among she controls. As Steven Milloy not," Let's say you've studied the association between high-fat diets and lung cancer. You've calculated a relative risk of 6. The correct interpretation of this relative risk is that the incidence of high-fat diets in the study population was six times greater among those persons with lung cancer than those without lung cancer." Steven Milloy, Science Without Sense, Cat Institute, Washington DC, 1995, page 12.

6 NHMRC, Report, frontspiece, page unnumbered.

7 For example, NHMRC, Report, Pages 77, 101, 105.

8 Ibid, page 105

9 J. McCormick and P. Skrabanek, Follies and Fallacies in Medicine, Tarragon Press, Glasgow,1989, pages 90-91.

10 See A. Weinberg, 'Science and Trans-Science', Minerva, 10, 1972, Pages 209-222

11 Ken Rothman, Modern Epidemiology, Little Brown, Boston, 1986, Page 11, (Emphasis added)

12 See NHMRC ,Report, page 5

13 Loc. cit.

14 The NHMRC's nine criteria for causation, drawn from Hill's textbook, Principles of Medical Statistics, are: Strength of association; Dose-Response;m Consistency; Specificity;Temporal relationship; Biological plausibility; Experimental evidence; Reasoning by analogy; and Coherence of evidence. See NHMRC, report, page 88

15 NHMRC, Report, page 5

16 P. Skrabanek, 'Risk Factor Epidemiology, Science or Non-Science?' in Health, Lifestyle and Environment, Manhattan Institute, New York, 1991, Pages 47-48.

17 R. Doll and R. Peto, The Causes of Cancer, Oxford University Press, New York, 1981, Page 1218

18 Gary Taubes, 'Epidemiology Faces Limits', Science, Vol. 269, 14 July 1995, page 165

19 Ibid., page 168

20 Loc.cit.

21 G. Gori, 'Epidemiology, Risk Assessment, and Public Policy: Restoring Epistemic Warrants' in Risk Analysis, in press.

22 In risk assessment language, 'conservative' refers to the assumption that 1) there is probably more risk than the data demonstrate and 2) one should act as if any risk constitutes an unacceptable threat. A 'default option' is any assumption that bridges a gap in the scientific data or knowledge about any risk which cannot be proved or disproved by science. for further detail, see A Blueprint for Constructing a Credible Environmental Risk Assessment Policy in the 104th Congress, 1994, The Institute for Regulatory Policy, Washington, DC, and K.Harrison and C. Hogberg, Risk, Science, and Politics, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal, 1994.

23 'Dose response linearity' means that the relationship between the dose and the response is proportionate such that a change in one-the dose-brings about a proportionate change in the other-the response.

24 NHMRC, Report, page 98.

25 See R. Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred Year Cigarette War, the Public Health and the Unabashed Triumph of Phillip Morris, Knopf, New York, 1996, Pages 690-699 and 737-740.

26 Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other Disorders, Washington DC, December 1992, page 1-1.

27 See, for example, Ibid, pages 1-4 and 1-8

28 G. Huber, R. Brockie, and V. Mahajan, Consumers Research in the United States, 1991.

29 Science, July 1992, page 607 30 The Science Advisory Board within the EPA involves outside experts who provide peer review for agency research. The less-than-objective nature of the SAB with respect to the EPA's ETS report is outlined by M. Perske, 'The Politicized Science of Tobacco Policy' Regulation, 3, 1995, pages 11-15. Perske's account reproduces verbatim discussions from the SAB about the relationship between ETS and active smoking.

31 Journal of the American Medical Association, 29 July 1989, page 499.

32 See Kluger, op. cit., page 692

33 See EPA, op. cit., Appendix A Addendum

34 R. Brownson, M. Alavanja, et all., 'Passive Smoking and lung cancer in non-smoking women', American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1992, pages 1525-1530.

35 EPA, op. cit., page 5-48.

36 L. garfinkel, et all., 'Involuntary smoking and lung cancer: a case control study.' Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 75, 1985

37 Safeguarding the Future: Credible Science, Credible Decisions, EPA, Washington DC, 1991, page 17.

38 Johnstone, J.R., Health Scare: The Misuse of Science in Public Health Policy, AIPP, Perth, 1991, Pages 7-13.

39 NHMRC, Report of the working party on the effects of passive smoking on health, 1986.

40 D. Tricopoulos, A Kalondidi, et al. 'Lung cancer and passive smoking: conclusion of Greek study', Lancet ii,1983, pages 667-678.

41 W. Heller, 'Lung cancer and passive smoking', Lancet ii 1983, page 1309, D. Trichopoulos, 'Passive smoking and lung cancer', Lancet March 1984, page 684.

42 N. Mantel, 'Non-smoking wives of heavy smokers have a higher risk of lung cancer', British Medical Journal, 282, pages 914-915.

43 M. Rutsch. ' Nonsmoking wives of heavy smokers have a higher risk of lung cancer', British Medical Journal, 282, 1981, page 985.

44 T. Hirayama, 'Nonsmoking wives of heavy smokers have a higher risk of lung cancer', British Medical Journal, 282, 1981, pages 916-917.

45 P. Lee, 'Nonsmoking wives of heavy smokers have higher risk of lung cancer', British Medical Journal, 283, 1981, pages 1465-1466.

46 P. Correa, et al., 'Passive smoking and lung cancer,' Lancet, 2, 1983, pp. 595-597

47 Garfinkel, op. cit.

48 NHMRC, Report, page 78

49 G. Kabat, et al., American Journal of Epidemiology, 142, No.2, 1995, pages 141-148.

50 E. Fontham., et al., Journal of the American Medical Association, 271, No. 22, 1994, pages 1752-1759

51 Brownson, op cit.

52 H. Stockwell, et al., Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 84, No. 18, 1992, pages 1417-1422.

53 NHMRC, Report, page 94

54 See C. Redhead and R. Rowberg, Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Lung Cancer Risk, Congressional Research Service 1995, page 2.

55 Loc cit.

56 NHMRC Report,page 105.

57 Redhead and Rowberg, op cit, page 45

58 NHMRC, Report, page 19

59 Redhead and Rowberg, op cit., page 40.

60 EPA, op cit., page 6-6

61 NHMRC, Report, pages 99-100

62 Ibid., page 101

63 See NHMRC, Report, page 97

64 Cotinine is the most commonly used ETS biomarker. Cotinine is the metabolite of nicotine inside the body.

65 Redhead and Rowberg, op cit., page 4.

66 NHMRC Report, page 6

67 NHMRC, Report, page 209.

68 P.D. Finch, 'Creative Statistics', Health, Lifestyle and Environment, The Social Affairs Unit and the Manhattan Institute, New York, 1991, page 80-81.